Banyak fosil berperan sebagai bagian integral dari batuan sedimen. Fosil dapat berfungsi sebagai komponen minor dari batuan, namun dapat pula merupakan komponen dominan sebagaimana yang terjadi pada beberapa jenis batugamping. Tugas kita disini bukan menelaah aspek-aspek biologi (taksonomi), bentuk fosil (morfologi), atau kebenaan stratigrafinya, melainkan menelaah fosil sebagai komponen batuan. Setiap ahli petrologi hendaknya mampu mengenal fosil dalam sayatan tipis dan—berdasarkan komposisi, preservasi, dan cara fosil itu hadir dalam batuan—mengambil informasi penting mengenai asal-usul batuan dimana fosil itu berada.
Dalam tulisan ini kita juga tidak menujukan perhatian pada struktur berskala besar yang terbentuk secara organik. Terumbu, misalnya saja, merupakan tubuh batuan sedimen dan akan dibahas pada Bab 5. Disini kita juga tidak akan membahas berbagai jenis track, trail, lubang galian (burrow), modifikasi perlapisan yang disebabkan oleh gangguan bioturbasi, atau bentuk-bentuk lapisan pertumbuhan (stromatolit) yang dinisbahkan pada organisme (struktur sedimen biogenik seperti itu akan dibahas pada Bab 4). Disini perhatian kita akan ditujukan pada fosil dan detritus fosil; pada pengenalan komponen sedimen yang berupa rangka organisme. Kita ingin mengetahui asal-usul rangka organik, yakni organisme yang bertanggungjawab terhadap fragmen-fragmen itu, apakah ganggang, foraminifera, koral, dsb.
Meningkatnya ketertarikan para ahli terhadap petrologi batugamping selama dua dasawarsa terakhir telah memicu banyak pertanyaan mengenai hal-hal tersebut di atas. Meskipun Sorby (1879) merupakan orang pertama yang mengungkapkan khuluk petrografi sisa-sisa organisme, namun topik itu baru menarik perhatian para ahli baru-baru ini. Pada bagian ini akan disajikan sebuah ikhtisar mengenai topik itu. Pembahasan yang lebih mendalam dapat ditemukan dalam karya tulis Majewske (1969) serta Horowitz & Potter (1971).
3.6.1 Komposisi dan Modus Preservasi
Fosil merupakan bukti kehidupan purba. Fosil dapat terkubur sebagai sisa-sisa organisme yang tidak terubah, misalnya sebagai struktur organik yang resisten—tulang, gigi, dan cangkang. Sebagian besar cangkang dan struktur lain pada mulanya merupakan senyawa kalsium karbonat dengan kadar magnesium dan unsur-unsur minor lain yang beragam. Cangkang dan struktur lain merupakan senyawa fosfatik, silikaan, atau chitinoid.
Sisa-sisa organik dapat terubah dengan tingkat perubahan yang beragam. Sebagian cangkang karbonat terlindi (leached); sebagian lain mengalami rekristalisasi dan kehilangan struktur internalnya; tulang dan material sejenis dapat mengalami pengayaan unsur F. Sisa-sisa organik seperti selulosa dapat mengalami degradasi hebat dan dalam batuan tua hanya ditemukan dalam wujud film karbon. Hal itu juga berlaku pada jaringan tumbuhan dan sebagian chitinous materials. Bagian lunak tubuh binatang bahkan dapat mengalami alterasi hebat. Fosil seperti itu tidak lebih dari sekedar film karbon yang tersisa setelah kehilangan unsur-unsur volatil di bawah kondisi anaerob. Fosil tumbuhan yang mengalami karbonisasi banyak ditemukan dalam serpih yang berasosiasi dengan lapisan batubara. Banyak pula kayu yang mengalami karbonisasi ditemukan dalam lapisan serpih dan pasir. Pada beberapa kasus, sebagaimana yang terjadi pada “arang kayu” (charcoal; fusain) dan “bola batubara” (“coal ball”) (Stopes & Watson, 1909), dinding sel-sel tumbuhan mengalami karbonisasi, sedangkan sel-selnya sendiri terisi oleh mineral, biasanya kalsit. Sebagian sisa tumbuhan dapat terawetkan dengan indah. Sebagian fosil graptolit terawetkan sebagai film-film karbon dalam batusabak dan serpih hitam Ordovisium.
Struktur organik mungkin tergantikan seluruhnya sedemikian rupa sehingga komposisi fosil sewaktu ditemukan jauh berbeda dengan komposisi asalnya. Proses penggantian seperti itu (petrifikasi) sebenarnya merupakan segregasi-segregasi mineral minor penyusun batuan sehingga memiliki kebenaan geokimia yang sama dengan konkresi, nodul, dan benda-benda lain yang mirip dengan itu. Silika, karbonat, dan sulfida besi merupakan tipe-tipe material pengganti yang sering ditemukan. Penggantian itu sendiri dapat berlangsung dengan tingkat preservasi yang cukup mendetil.
Dalam banyak kasus, struktur organik asli maupun struktur pengganti tidak ditemukan. Apa yang ditemukan hanya lubang bekas kehadiran struktur organik, yang disebut mold. Mold itu terbentuk akibat hilangnya struktur asal akibat pelarutan. Mold memperlihatkan bentuk dan ornamentasi benda asalnya. Jika mold itu kemudian terisi oleh material lain, maka benda yang dihasilkan oleh pengisian itu disebut cast. Cast juga dapat memperlihatkan bentuk luar (namun tidak bentuk dalam) dari fosil asli. Benda yang terbentuk akibat pengisian lubang di bagian interior fosil sering disebut “cast of interior”. Dalam pengertian terbatas, benda itu merupakan internal mold.
Pelet kotoran (fecal pellet) adalah kotoran (terutama invertebrata) yang ditemukan dalam endapan bahari masa kini dan kadang-kadang juga dalam endapan purba, dimana pelet itu telah mengalami litifikasi (Moore, 1939; Dapples, 1942). Sebagian besar pelet merupakan produk organisme pemakan lumpur sehingga pelet umumnya disusun oleh partikel-partikel lempung dan lanau yang direkatkan satu sama lain oleh zat organik. Banyak pelet lunak kemudian mengalami disintegrasi, sedangkan sebagian lain termineralisasi dan menjadi bagian integral dari sedimen. Pada beberapa kasus, sebagian besar (30–50%) endapan sedimen disusun oleh pelet. Pelet dapat tertransformasi menjadi glaukonit atau mengalami piritisasi. Pelet juga dapat menjadi bagian dalam dari akumulasi fosfat. Pelet kotoran yang paling sering ditemukan adalah pelet berbentuk telur dan ber-ukuran kecil (panjangnya 1 mm atau kurang dari itu). Pelet seperti itu banyak dilaporkan kehadirannya dalam sedimen purba, terutama batugamping. Walau demikian, benda seperti itu tidak dapat selalu diketahui asal-usulnya sebagai kotoran. Pelet yang lebih jarang ditemukan adalah pelet memanjang dengan ornamen transversal dan/atau longitudinal. Sebagian besar pelet kotoran tidak memiliki struktur internal dan dalam banyak kasus sering teridentifikasikan sebagai benda anorganik.
Koprolit (coprolite) adalah benda berukuran besar yang asal-usulnya mirip dengan pelet kotoran. Orang yang pertama-tama mengenal asal-usul koprolit agaknya Buckland (1835). Dia menemukan koprolit dalam endapan Lias di Inggris (Folk, 1965b). Literatur mengenai koprolit telah dikaji secara mendalam oleh Amstutz (1958).
Koprolit biasanya berwarna coklat muda, coklat tua, atau hitam, bentuknya seperti telur (ovoid) hingga memanjang, panjang-nya 1–15 cm, dengan permukaan yang dicirikan oleh konvolusi anular. Striation longitudinal atau groove jarang ditemukan dalam koprolit. Material berserat yang berwarna coklat dalam koprolit umumnya merupakan material fosfatik dan secara optik bersifat isotrop dengan indeks refraksi mendekati indeks refraksi kolofan (collophane) (1,58–1,62). Bradley (1946) menunjukkan bahwa koprolit dalam Bridger Formation (Eocene) di Wyoming kemungkinan merupakan karbonat-apatit (francolite). Koprolit yang diteliti oleh Amstutz berkomposisi limonitik dengan inti sideritik, dari bagian mana limonit diperkirakan berasal. Jelas bahwa siderit itu menggantikan material asli penyusun koprolit itu. Koprolit merupakan material penyusun batuan sedimen yang relatif jarang ditemukan. Salah satu pengecualiannya adalah endapan terestrial Tersier yang banyak mengandung sisa-sisa mamalia.
3.6.2 Petrologi Fosil
Para ahli petrografi sering menemukan komponen-komponen granuler sedimen yang berupa sisa-sisa invertebrata, terutama dalam batugamping. Sebagian batuan terutama disusun oleh fosil tersebut. Karena itu, setiap ahli petrografi hendaknya mampu mengenal fragmen-fragmen fosil itu dan, jika memungkinkan, menentukan kategori organisme tersebut. Karena masalah ini sangat penting dalam kaitannya dengan batugamping, maka pembahasan yang lebih mendetil tentang petrologi fosil akan disajikan pada Bab 10.
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